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Challenging the Tallest Glass Ceilings: Latin American Female Heads of State

Year 2022, Volume: 5 Issue: 1, 1 - 17, 28.03.2022

Abstract

While there were four women presidents at the same time in Latin America (2007-2014), there is only one (1) woman president today. Although this is considered as the return of political power to male dominance or the decline of the "Pink Tide", it is seen that women continue to struggle for power with more political experience than before. Throughout modern history, Latin America has had 13 female presidents. Half of these women came to power under extraordinary conditions and constitutional breaks. The election and empowerment of women to the top political positions challenges existing gender roles. On the other hand, their lives and experiences represent a distinctive phenomenon. This study focuses on 13 women presidents elected/appointed since 1974 when the first woman president took office in Latin America. The special backgrounds, family ties, and political experiences that make the presidents different are the subject of the study. In this context, the lives of women before they became president are analyzed with a comparative method. The two main factors that bring women to power are education and political experience. Although it is observed that there are mostly family ties (spouse, father, mother, etc.), or strong male (leader, president) ties other than relatives in the election of women as presidents, this situation did not apply to women presidents elected after 2010. Even if women have one of these ties, it has been revealed that their own talents and political experiences are more prominent.

References

  • Alcántara, M. (2018). Politics in Latin America in the Past Third of a Century (1978–2015). M. Alcántara, J. Blondel and J. L. Thiébault (Ed.). In Presidents and Democracy in Latin America (s.5-23). New york and London: Routledge.
  • Alcántara, M., Barragán, M. and Sánchez, F. (2018). Political Career Trajectories and Social Backgrounds: Latin American Presidents in Comparative Perspective (1978–2015). M. Alcántara, J. Blondel and J. L. Thiébault (Ed.). In Presidents and Democracy in Latin America (p.73-89). New york and London: Routledge.
  • Alexander, A. C. & Jalalzai, F. (2018). Symbolic empowerment and female heads of states and government: a global, multilevel analysis, Politics, Groups, and Identities, DOI: 10.1080/21565503.2018.1441034.
  • Dannefjord, J. (2021), Is there a new Pink Tide on Latin America’s horizon? https://www.theperspective.se/is-there-a-new-pink-tide-on-latin-americas-horizon/, (Erişim Tarihi: 19.01.2022).
  • Engler, V (2018) . Women in politics in Latin America, from the Pink Tide to the turn to the Right. https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/democraciaabierta/women-in-politics-in-latin-america-from-pink-tide-to-turn-to-right/, (Erişim Tarihi: 19.01.2022).
  • Cortes-Conde, F., & Boxer, D. (2015), Breaking the glass & keeping the ceiling: Women presidents’discursive practices in Latin America. J. Wilson and D. Boxer (Ed.). Discourse, Politics and Women as Global Leaders (p. 43-67). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
  • Franceschet, S. and Thomas, G. (2010). Renegotiating Political Leadership: Michelle Bachelet’s Rise to the Chilean Presidency. R. Murray (Ed.). In Cracking the Highest Glass Ceiling: A Global Comparison of Women’s Campaigns for Executive Office (p. 177–197). Santa Barbara: Praeger.
  • Funk, K. D., Hinojosa, M., and Piscopo, J. M. (2017). Still Left Behind: Gender, Political Parties, and Latin America’s Pink Tide. Social Politics, 24 (4), 399-424.
  • Green, J. N. (2011). Brazil: Dilma Rousseff’s Victory, NACLA Report on the Americas, 44 (1), 3-4.
  • Hoffmann, A. R. (2019). Women in Leadership in Latin American Regionalism, Desafíos, Bogotá (Colombia), 31(1), 349-362.
  • IPU (2021). Women in Politics: 2021. https://www.ipu.org/women-in-politics-2021, (Erişim Tarihi: 10.12.2022).
  • Jaquette, J. S. (2017), Women at the Top: Leadership, Institutions and the Quality of Democracy. V. Montecinos (Ed.). Women Presidents and Prime Ministers in Post-Transition Democracies (p. 37-59). USA: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Jalalzai, F. (2004). Women Political Leaders. Women & Politics 26 (3-4): 85–108.
  • Jalalzai, F. (2008). “Women Rule: Shattering the Executive Glass Ceiling.” Politics & Gender 4 (02): 205–231.
  • Jalalzai, F. (2010). Madam President: Gender, Power, and the Comparative Presidency, Journal of Women, Politics & Policy, 31: 132–165.
  • Jalalzai, F. and Krook, M. L. (2010). Beyond Hillary and Benazir: women’s political leadership worldwide. International Political Science Review, 31(1): 5–21.
  • Jalalzai, F. (2013). Shattered, Cracked, or Firmly Intact: Women and the Executive Glass Ceiling Worldwide. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Jalalzai, F., & Rincker, M. (2018). Blood is Thicker than Water: Family Ties to Political Power Worldwide. Historical Social Research, 43(4), 54-72.
  • Jensen, J. S. (2008). Women political leaders: breaking the highest glass ceiling, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Macaulay, F. (2017). Dilma Rousseff (2011–2016): A Crisis of Governance and Consensus in Brazil. V. Montecinos (Ed.). Women Presidents and Prime Ministers in Post-Transition Democracies (p. 123-141). USA: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Molyneux, M. (2003). Women’s Movements in International Perspecties: Latin America and Beyond. London: Institute of Latin American Studies.
  • Montecinos, V. (2017). Introduction. V. Montecinos (Ed.). Women Presidents and Prime Ministers in Post-Transition Democracies (p. 1-37). USA: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • OECD (2014). Women, Government and Policy Making in OECD Countries: Fostering Diversity for Inclusive Growth. OECD Publishing.
  • Reyes-Housholder, C. (2016). Presidentas Rise: Consequences for Women in Cabinets? Latin American Politics & Society, 58 (3), 1–23.
  • Reyes-Housholder, C. and Thomas, G. (2018). Latin America’s Presidentas: Overcoming Challenges, Forging New Pathways. L. A. Schwindt-Bayer (Ed.). Gender and Representation in Latin America (p. 19-38), New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Ríos Tobar, M. (2008). Seizing a window of opportunity: The election of president Bachelet in Chile. Politics and Society, 4 (3), 509–519.
  • Rubio, V. (2021). Today’s Latin America Has No Female Presidents. It’s Not Going Well. https://www.americasquarterly.org/article/todays-latin-america-has-no-female-presidents-its-not-going-well/, (Erişim Tarihi: 3.01.2022)
  • Saint-Germain, M. A. (2013). Women in Power in Nicaragua: Myth and Reality. M. A. Genovese, and J. S. Steckenrider (Ed.). In Women as Political Leaders (s.110–144). London: Sage.
  • Schwindt-Bayer, L. A., Vallejo, A., Cantú, F. (2020). Gender and Family Ties in Latin American Legislatures. Politics & Gender, 1-25.
  • Skard, T. (2014). Women of Power: Half a Century of Female Presidents and Prime Ministers Worldwide. United Kingdom: Policy Press.
  • Tali, R. ve Tokuroğlu, B. (2018). Kamusal/Siyasal Alanda Görünürlük: Türkiye’de Kadın Belediye Başkanlarının Siyasi Temsili Üzerine Nitel Bir Araştırma. Journal of Institute of Economic Development and Social Researches, 4(8), 111-122.
  • Tali, R. (2019). Kadınların Yerel Siyasi Temsil Süreçleri. Ankara: İmaj Yayıncılık.
  • Watson, R. P., Jencik, A. and Selzer, J. A. (2005). Women World Leaders: Comparative Analysis and Gender Experiences. Journal of International Women's Studies, 7(2), 53-76.
  • Weir, S. J. (2013). Perónisma: Isabel Perón and the Politics of Argentina., M. A. Genovese, and J. S. Steckenrider (Ed.). In Women as Political Leaders (s.256–270). London: Sage
  • Yarar, A. ve Erbaş H. (2017). Latin Amerika'da Toplumsal Hareketler ve Kadınlar: Zapatista Örneği. DTCF Dergisi, 57 (2), 1069-1101.

En Yüksek Cam Tavanlara Meydan Okumak: Latin Amerika Kadın Devlet Başkanları

Year 2022, Volume: 5 Issue: 1, 1 - 17, 28.03.2022

Abstract

Latin Amerika’da (2007-2014 arası) aynı anda dört kadın başkan varken günümüzde sadece bir kadın başkan bulunmaktadır. Bu, siyasi iktidarın erkek egemenliğine geri dönüşü ya da “Pembe Dalga”nın sönmesi olarak değerlendirilse de kadınların eskisinden daha fazla siyasi deneyimle iktidar için mücadeleye devam ettiği görülmektedir. Modern tarih boyunca Latin Amerika’nın 13 kadın başkanı olmuştur. Bu kadınların yarısı olağanüstü koşullar ve anayasal kırılmalar altında iktidara gelmiştir. Kadınların en üst siyasi pozisyona seçilmeleri ve güç kazanmaları mevcut toplumsal cinsiyet rollerine meydan okumaktadır. Diğer yandan hayatları ve deneyimleri ayırt edici bir fenomeni temsil etmektedir. Bu çalışma, Latin Amerika’da ilk kadın başkanın göreve geldiği 1974 yılından günümüze seçilen/atanan 13 kadın başkana odaklanmaktadır. Başkanları farklı kılan özel geçmişleri, aile bağları ve siyasi deneyimleri çalışmanın konusunu oluşturmaktadır. Bu bağlamda kadınların başkan olmadan önceki hayatları karşılaştırmalı yöntemle incelenmektedir. Kadınları iktidara taşıyan temel iki faktörün; eğitim ve siyasi deneyim olduğu gözlenmiştir. Kadınların başkan seçilmelerinde çoğunlukla aile bağı (eş, baba, anne, vb.) ya da akraba dışında güçlü bir erkek (lider, başkan) bağının olduğu gözlenmekle beraber bu durumun 2010 sonrası başkan seçilen kadınlar için geçerli olmadığı sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Kadınlar, bu bağlardan birine sahip olsa bile kendi yetenekleri ve siyasi deneyimlerinin daha ön planda olduğu ortaya çıkmıştır.

References

  • Alcántara, M. (2018). Politics in Latin America in the Past Third of a Century (1978–2015). M. Alcántara, J. Blondel and J. L. Thiébault (Ed.). In Presidents and Democracy in Latin America (s.5-23). New york and London: Routledge.
  • Alcántara, M., Barragán, M. and Sánchez, F. (2018). Political Career Trajectories and Social Backgrounds: Latin American Presidents in Comparative Perspective (1978–2015). M. Alcántara, J. Blondel and J. L. Thiébault (Ed.). In Presidents and Democracy in Latin America (p.73-89). New york and London: Routledge.
  • Alexander, A. C. & Jalalzai, F. (2018). Symbolic empowerment and female heads of states and government: a global, multilevel analysis, Politics, Groups, and Identities, DOI: 10.1080/21565503.2018.1441034.
  • Dannefjord, J. (2021), Is there a new Pink Tide on Latin America’s horizon? https://www.theperspective.se/is-there-a-new-pink-tide-on-latin-americas-horizon/, (Erişim Tarihi: 19.01.2022).
  • Engler, V (2018) . Women in politics in Latin America, from the Pink Tide to the turn to the Right. https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/democraciaabierta/women-in-politics-in-latin-america-from-pink-tide-to-turn-to-right/, (Erişim Tarihi: 19.01.2022).
  • Cortes-Conde, F., & Boxer, D. (2015), Breaking the glass & keeping the ceiling: Women presidents’discursive practices in Latin America. J. Wilson and D. Boxer (Ed.). Discourse, Politics and Women as Global Leaders (p. 43-67). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
  • Franceschet, S. and Thomas, G. (2010). Renegotiating Political Leadership: Michelle Bachelet’s Rise to the Chilean Presidency. R. Murray (Ed.). In Cracking the Highest Glass Ceiling: A Global Comparison of Women’s Campaigns for Executive Office (p. 177–197). Santa Barbara: Praeger.
  • Funk, K. D., Hinojosa, M., and Piscopo, J. M. (2017). Still Left Behind: Gender, Political Parties, and Latin America’s Pink Tide. Social Politics, 24 (4), 399-424.
  • Green, J. N. (2011). Brazil: Dilma Rousseff’s Victory, NACLA Report on the Americas, 44 (1), 3-4.
  • Hoffmann, A. R. (2019). Women in Leadership in Latin American Regionalism, Desafíos, Bogotá (Colombia), 31(1), 349-362.
  • IPU (2021). Women in Politics: 2021. https://www.ipu.org/women-in-politics-2021, (Erişim Tarihi: 10.12.2022).
  • Jaquette, J. S. (2017), Women at the Top: Leadership, Institutions and the Quality of Democracy. V. Montecinos (Ed.). Women Presidents and Prime Ministers in Post-Transition Democracies (p. 37-59). USA: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Jalalzai, F. (2004). Women Political Leaders. Women & Politics 26 (3-4): 85–108.
  • Jalalzai, F. (2008). “Women Rule: Shattering the Executive Glass Ceiling.” Politics & Gender 4 (02): 205–231.
  • Jalalzai, F. (2010). Madam President: Gender, Power, and the Comparative Presidency, Journal of Women, Politics & Policy, 31: 132–165.
  • Jalalzai, F. and Krook, M. L. (2010). Beyond Hillary and Benazir: women’s political leadership worldwide. International Political Science Review, 31(1): 5–21.
  • Jalalzai, F. (2013). Shattered, Cracked, or Firmly Intact: Women and the Executive Glass Ceiling Worldwide. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Jalalzai, F., & Rincker, M. (2018). Blood is Thicker than Water: Family Ties to Political Power Worldwide. Historical Social Research, 43(4), 54-72.
  • Jensen, J. S. (2008). Women political leaders: breaking the highest glass ceiling, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Macaulay, F. (2017). Dilma Rousseff (2011–2016): A Crisis of Governance and Consensus in Brazil. V. Montecinos (Ed.). Women Presidents and Prime Ministers in Post-Transition Democracies (p. 123-141). USA: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Molyneux, M. (2003). Women’s Movements in International Perspecties: Latin America and Beyond. London: Institute of Latin American Studies.
  • Montecinos, V. (2017). Introduction. V. Montecinos (Ed.). Women Presidents and Prime Ministers in Post-Transition Democracies (p. 1-37). USA: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • OECD (2014). Women, Government and Policy Making in OECD Countries: Fostering Diversity for Inclusive Growth. OECD Publishing.
  • Reyes-Housholder, C. (2016). Presidentas Rise: Consequences for Women in Cabinets? Latin American Politics & Society, 58 (3), 1–23.
  • Reyes-Housholder, C. and Thomas, G. (2018). Latin America’s Presidentas: Overcoming Challenges, Forging New Pathways. L. A. Schwindt-Bayer (Ed.). Gender and Representation in Latin America (p. 19-38), New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Ríos Tobar, M. (2008). Seizing a window of opportunity: The election of president Bachelet in Chile. Politics and Society, 4 (3), 509–519.
  • Rubio, V. (2021). Today’s Latin America Has No Female Presidents. It’s Not Going Well. https://www.americasquarterly.org/article/todays-latin-america-has-no-female-presidents-its-not-going-well/, (Erişim Tarihi: 3.01.2022)
  • Saint-Germain, M. A. (2013). Women in Power in Nicaragua: Myth and Reality. M. A. Genovese, and J. S. Steckenrider (Ed.). In Women as Political Leaders (s.110–144). London: Sage.
  • Schwindt-Bayer, L. A., Vallejo, A., Cantú, F. (2020). Gender and Family Ties in Latin American Legislatures. Politics & Gender, 1-25.
  • Skard, T. (2014). Women of Power: Half a Century of Female Presidents and Prime Ministers Worldwide. United Kingdom: Policy Press.
  • Tali, R. ve Tokuroğlu, B. (2018). Kamusal/Siyasal Alanda Görünürlük: Türkiye’de Kadın Belediye Başkanlarının Siyasi Temsili Üzerine Nitel Bir Araştırma. Journal of Institute of Economic Development and Social Researches, 4(8), 111-122.
  • Tali, R. (2019). Kadınların Yerel Siyasi Temsil Süreçleri. Ankara: İmaj Yayıncılık.
  • Watson, R. P., Jencik, A. and Selzer, J. A. (2005). Women World Leaders: Comparative Analysis and Gender Experiences. Journal of International Women's Studies, 7(2), 53-76.
  • Weir, S. J. (2013). Perónisma: Isabel Perón and the Politics of Argentina., M. A. Genovese, and J. S. Steckenrider (Ed.). In Women as Political Leaders (s.256–270). London: Sage
  • Yarar, A. ve Erbaş H. (2017). Latin Amerika'da Toplumsal Hareketler ve Kadınlar: Zapatista Örneği. DTCF Dergisi, 57 (2), 1069-1101.
There are 35 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Subjects Political Science
Journal Section Research Articles
Authors

Ruziye Tali

Publication Date March 28, 2022
Submission Date January 28, 2022
Published in Issue Year 2022 Volume: 5 Issue: 1

Cite

APA Tali, R. (2022). En Yüksek Cam Tavanlara Meydan Okumak: Latin Amerika Kadın Devlet Başkanları. Türkiye Siyaset Bilimi Dergisi, 5(1), 1-17.

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